1860 United States Census

The 1860 Census was the eighth U.S. decennial census, officially taken on June 1, 1860. It recorded a total population of 31,443,321 (including 3,953,760 slaves). Taken just months before the United States Civil War, this census provides a vital “snapshot” of the nation on the eve of conflict. During the 1850s the country was expanding westward (new territories like Kansas, Nebraska, Utah and more were being settled), but it remained sharply divided over slavery. Millions of African Americans were still enslaved in the South, and that reality is reflected in the 1860 census – free people (of all races) were listed by name on the Population Schedule (Schedule 1), while enslaved people were tallied on a separate Slave Schedule (Schedule 2) under the name of each slaveholder.

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How the 1860 Census Was TakenHow the 1860 Census Was Taken

The census was conducted by U.S. marshals and their assistants going door-to-door to every household. Census takers were instructed to count “all the inhabitants” (free persons) in each district. Enumerators filled in printed schedules listing one household per page, writing down information for everyone living there on Census Day (June 1, 1860). (If a house was visited later, the enumerator was supposed to record information only for those who had been present on June 1.) The work took about five months in total. Each county was divided into “enumeration districts” so that one census taker could cover a manageable area, and every person over age 20 was required to answer the enumerator’s questions truthfully. After collection, the pages were sent back to Washington, D.C. for tabulation.

Information Collected in 1860Information Collected in 1860

Schedule 1 – Free Inhabitants: This was the main population schedule. For each household, the enumerator recorded:

Dwelling and Family Numbers: Each house (dwelling) was numbered in visitation order, and families within each house were numbered separately.
Name: Every free person living in the household (head and all members) was listed by name.
Age and Sex: Age in years, and sex (M or F). (Babies born after June 1 were not listed.)
Color (Race): Marked as W (White), B (Black), or M (Mulatto). Mulatto was the term used at the time for a person of mixed African and European ancestry. (Free persons of color could be Black or Mulatto.)
Occupation: The trade or profession for anyone over 15 (e.g. Farmer, Laborer, Clerk).
Estate Values: Value of real estate owned and value of personal estate (in dollars). These columns give clues about a family’s wealth.
Birthplace: State, territory, or country where each person was born. This column is very useful for tracing ancestors who immigrated or moved between states.
“Yes/No” Marks: Additional columns were simply checked (/) if the answer was “yes.” These include “Married within the year”, “Attended school within the year,” “Cannot read and write” (for persons over 20), and “Deaf and dumb, blind, insane, idiotic, pauper, or convict”. A slash mark in these columns indicates that condition applied.

Schedule 2 – Slave Inhabitants: In slaveholding jurisdictions, a separate schedule listed enslaved people under each slaveowner. This schedule included the name of the slaveholder, and then tallied each enslaved person only by age, sex, color, and status (e.g. fugitive, manumitted), plus number of slave dwellings. Enslaved individuals were almost never named, so you will not find a family’s enslaved ancestors by name. Instead, their demographic details were recorded under their owner’s name. (After the Civil War, the 1870 census was the first to list all formerly enslaved persons by name in the population schedules.)

Other Schedules (1860): The 1860 census also included non-population schedules. For instance, Mortality Schedules listed people who died in the previous year; Agriculture and Manufacturing Schedules detailed farms and industries; etc. These are useful for researchers interested in a farm or a person’s death, but beginning genealogists often focus first on the Population Schedule where all family members appear by name.

Interpreting 1860 Census DataInterpreting 1860 Census Data

When reading an 1860 census page, keep in mind:

Abbreviations: Common abbreviations include M and F for sex; W, B, M for race (White, Black, Mulatto). Some occupations are abbreviated or hard to read (e.g. “Lab.” for Laborer).
“Yes” Columns: A slash “/” mark in the columns for Married, School, or Literacy means yes (e.g. “married in last year” or “attended school”). A blank means no.
Race Terms: The term Mulatto was commonly used in these censuses to denote mixed-race individuals. (“Mulatto” and “Colored” should be understood in their 19th-century context.)
Family Order: Enumerators usually listed the head of household first, then spouse, then children by age (oldest first), and finally other relatives or non-relatives (servants, boarders, etc.). This ordering can help you infer relationships even though they weren’t explicitly labeled.

Keep these points in mind as you read the page: for example, in the sample image above you can see that in each household the oldest man is first, likely the father, followed by others. The birthplace column (at far right) often shows each person’s state or country of birth, which is a key clue to family origins.

Genealogical Value and Tips for BeginnersGenealogical Value and Tips for Beginners

Census records are genealogy gold mines because they list whole families in one place. In the 1860 census, every free person in a household is named, so you can reconstruct family groups at a glance. For beginner family historians, useful points include:

Finding Families: Start by searching for a known ancestor’s name. Once you locate a person, the census will show their household members (spouse, children, other relatives or neighbors in the same dwelling). This can reveal spouses or children you didn’t know about.
Ages and Birthplaces: Ages help estimate birth years (age on June 1, 1860) and birthplaces confirm migration. If one family member lists a different state of birth than others, it suggests that person moved or was born elsewhere.
Occupation and Estate: An ancestor’s occupation (farmer, shoemaker, etc.) and property values give context about their lifestyle. For example, a farmer with large land values likely owned a sizable farm.
Neighbors: Pay attention to neighbors. People on the same page with the same family number block were likely neighbors or related (especially if they share a surname). In rural areas, neighbors were often extended kin.
Slave Schedule: If your ancestor was African American in the South, remember that enslaved people won’t appear by name on the population schedule. You might find the family’s slaveowner on Schedule 2 instead, which at least confirms the household context.
Look at 1850/1870 Censuses: Compare with the 1850 and 1870 censuses to track changes (births, deaths, migrations). For instance, a child born between 1850 and 1860 will appear only in 1860, showing up as “new” to the family. Also, spelling variations in names are common – try variants (e.g. Bob vs. Robert) if a search fails.

Each U.S. census from 1850 onward lists all household members (though not relationships), so the 1860 census is especially valuable. Even if an ancestor seems “missing,” use clues like other family names or approximate age. Often, browsing the image (if available) around where you expect the person can help catch misspellings.

Finding 1860 Census Records OnlineFinding 1860 Census Records Online

Today you can search 1860 census records in several places:

MyHeritage: MyHeritage has a searchable collection of 27,120,054 indexed records from the 1860 U.S. Census. You can look up names (subscription needed for full details).
FamilySearch: The entire 1860 census (all states and territories) is free to search on FamilySearch. You can search by name or browse images (no account required).
National Archives (NARA): The U.S. National Archives holds the original census rolls (Microfilm M653, 1,438 rolls). Digital images can be accessed through the NARA Catalog or via partner sites. NARA’s page on the 1860 Census has background info. (In fact, NARA notes that digitized 1860 schedules are available on FamilySearch and other sites.)

For beginners, the 1860 census indexed at many genealogy sites such as MyHeritage. Using these resources, a beginner can look up ancestors by name, then click to view the actual census page.

ConclusionConclusion

The 1860 U.S. Census is a rich resource for family historians, capturing every free household member just before the Civil War. Understanding the questions and layout (names, ages, race, occupation, etc.) will help you extract clues from each page. By studying these records and comparing across years, beginners can trace families, lifespans, migrations, and more.

Explore more about the 1860 United States Federal CensusExplore more about the 1860 United States Federal Census

1860 United States Federal Census record collection at MyHeritage
1860 Enumeration Form - IPUMS USA
1860 Census Records - National Archives and Records Administration
1860 Census Instructions to Assistant Marshals- National Archives and Records Administration
1860 U.S. Federal Census - Cyndi's List

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